In this special issue of Neuroscience Bulletin, the topics range over emerging techniques from the nanoscopic to the macroscopic scales.

At the nanoscopic level, new ways to obtain images at the individual protein level in synapses[1] take the re-construction of synaptic architecture to a new level, while using chromophores to disable specific proteins at selected subcellular locations[2] allows the assessment of their functional roles in such dynamic processes as growth-cone extension and cell division. The subtle influences of axonal chan-nels and receptors on neurotransmission are revealed by recording from the blebs induced by axotomy[3], while methods from cloning to chemical computation are being applied to dissecting the structural-functional rules by which ion channels operate[4].

At the macroscopic level, the network of networks in the human brain in health and diseases being constructed in the “brain-net-ome” initiative[5,6] requires new tools to han-dle the vast quantities of data, such as multi-voxel pattern analysis and its potential for a form of “mind-reading”[7], new approaches to localization, especially in brain disease such as epilepsy[8], and novel tasks to activate and expose the networks underlying higher functions such as atten-tion[9]. While multi-electrode arrays[10] and optogenetic techniques that allow remarkable spatial and temporal control of stimuli and responses[11,12] are as yet far from ap-plication in humans, their development in animal models for studies of such key issues as neuronal plasticity and the sequelae of stress provide essential information for under- rmation mation under-standing the human condition.

We hope that this collection of thoughtful, exciting, and thorough papers on new and emerging techniques will encourage and stimulate, no matter which level of resolu-tion our readers are working at. After all, our ultimate goal is to generate a concept that integrates events at all levels of analysis and explains how the brain does what it does.

References:
[1] Tao C, Xia C, Chen X, Zhou ZH, Bi G. Ultrastructural analysis of neuronal synapses using state-of-the-art nano-imaging techniques. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 321–332.
[2] Li W, Stuurman N, Ou G. Chromophore-assisted laser inactivation in neural development. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 333–341.
[3] Hu W, Shu Y. Axonal bleb recording. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 342–350.
[4] Li WG, Xu TL. Emerging approaches to probing ion channel structure and function. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 351–374.
[5] Zuo N, Cheng J, Jiang T. Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging for Brainnetome: A critical review. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 375–388.
[6] Song M, Jiang T. A review of functional magnetic resonance imaging for Brainnetome. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 389–398.
[7] Yang Z, Fang F, Weng X. Recent developments of multivariate pattern analysis for functional MRI. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 399–408.
[8] Wurina, Zang YF, Zhao SG. Resting-state fMRI studies in epilepsy. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 449–455.
[9] Dong ZY, Liu DQ, Wang J, Qing Z, Zang ZX, Yan CG, et al. Lowfrequency fluctuation in continuous real-time feedback of finger force: a new paradigm for sustained attention. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 456–467.
[10] Liu MG, Chen XF, He T, Li Z, Chen J. Use of multi-electrode array recordings in study of network synaptic plasticity in both time and space. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 409–422.
[11] Chen Q, Zeng Z, Hu Z. Optogenetics in neuroscience: what we gain from mammals. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 423–434.
[12] Cheng J, Zhang J, Lu C, Wang L. Using optogenetics to translate the “inflammatory dialogue” between heart and brain in the context of stress. Neurosci Bull 2012, 28(4): 435–448.

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